Itinerary
Necropolis of San Cerbone
Introduction
Welcome to the Archaeological Park of Baratti and Populonia. Populonia was the only Etruscan city to be built on the coast, a location that contributed to the development of the port and made it a strategic Mediterranean crossroads, a place of commerce and maritime traffic, and an almost obligatory stopover for all ships travelling in the Mediterranean Sea. Ancient Populonia was located in a strategic position on one of the most popular trade routes in antiquity. The town was divided into two distinct nuclei: the upper part – the acropolis, i.e. the heart of the ancient town with its public and religious buildings, and the lower part, which was centred around the port and the industrial district, where metals were produced: copper from the Campigliese mines and iron from the island of Elba. Iron working began in Populonia during the mid-6th century BC. Previously, hematite (iron oxide) had been worked on the island of Elba, so much smoke being released from its iron furnaces that, unsurprisingly, it was known as "la fumosa” (the smoky place). In the end, however, the Etruscans exhausted all of its resources needed to produce fuel, the island eventually being totally deforested. Thus, since it was no longer possible to produce iron in situ anymore, once the iron ore had been extracted from Elba, it was loaded onto ships and transported to the Gulf of Baratti, which was still densely wooded and where there was also coal to fire the iron furnaces. Over time, however, heaps of ferrous slag (leftover fused waste from the iron making process) piled up on the land surrounding the gulf, and even the ancient Etruscan necropolis of San Cerbone, meaning that it would certainly not have been not a pleasant place to live in ancient times. Etruscan Populonia was indeed a polluted town, enveloped in fumes from the iron furnaces and surrounded by barren countryside. In fact, the waste from Etruscan iron making is still visible today in the black stones – shimmering traces of hematite – that you can see on the necropolis and Baratti beach. The production of iron in Populonia continued on into Roman times and, a few centuries later, the once monumental Etruscan necropolis was covered by a slag heap about 7 meters high. Imagine this whole area covered by a thick blanket of slag. However, the slag was still rich (about 60%) in useful iron ore, the part that the Etruscans had been unable to extract because their furnaces were not able to reach high enough temperatures. With the use of charcoal and manually operated bellows, however, Roman furnaces were able to reach temperatures of 1,000-1,100°C – very high indeed, but, since iron melts at 1,536°C, it was still not sufficient for fusion to take place, therefore the process was reduction rather than smelting. Having just emerged from the ravages of the First World War, early-1920s Italy needed a large quantity of iron. Indeed, the mining engineers of the time could scarcely believe their eyes when they found the veritable open-air iron mine left by the Etruscans in the area surrounding the Gulf of Baratti. Thus began the recovery of waste from the Etruscan iron making process that would continue for about 40 years, during which time, about 2,700,000 tons were recovered. In fact, the monumental Tumulus tombs of the Necropolis of San Cerbone, which had been buried for centuries, came to light during the recovery of this waste.
The Orientalizing Period in Etruscan Culture
Beginning in the late-8th century BC and lasting until the early-6th century BC, the Orientalizing Age marks the moment when Etruscan civilization opened up to Greece and the Orient. During this period, the importation and imitation of oriental decorative objects and motifs, destined for the ruling classes, began in Populonia and throughout Etruria. The Tumulus tombs with cylindrical tambours (the walled part of the dome) of the Necropolis of San Cerbone date back to this period, their rich and precious grave goods including bronze statuettes, gold jewels, bronze weapons and helmets, ceramic balsamariums, pottery and banquet items highlighting the wealth and importance of Populonia in the Etruscan world at that time. Along with finds imported from the East, objects in bucchero, a shiny, black ceramic, which was both locally produced and imported from southern Etruria, were also found. In fact, it is thanks to the study of these grave goods that it has been possible to reconstruct Populonia’s trade relationships with Corinth and Athens, parts of eastern Greece, such as Rhodes and Samos, Phoenicia and southern Etruria.
The Tomb of the Chariots
Discovered by Antonio Minto in 1914, the Tomb of the Chariots is the most monumental tomb of the Necropolis of San Cerbone, its dromos (passageway) and lateral chambers being excavated later, in 1921. Dating back to the 7th century BC, this Tumulus tomb belonged to the richest and most powerful family in Populonia, and was used until the early-6th century BC. Measuring 28 meters in diameter, it is the most impressive tomb yet to be found in Populonia, and was used to bury generations of the same family. The tomb owes its name to the two chariots dating back to the Orientalizing age found inside it during archaeological excavations: a war chariot and a parade chariot, both of which are currently housed in the Archaeological Museum of Florence. Both chariots have metal parts: iron wheels and decorations, and engraved bronze plates that covered the sides – their presence in this tomb testifying to the rank and power of the family that owned it. The carts had been placed in the small chambers facing the dromos, the access corridor to the burial chamber, and probably represented the means to reach the afterlife. As you can see, the entrance to the tomb is small, so the chariots had to be dismantled before being placed inside the chambers. The tomb consists of a cylindrical tambour, called a crepidine, built using blocks of panchina limestone, which were extracted from the nearby quarry. There is a paved path made of Alberese limestone around the base of the tomb, which slopes away allowing rainwater to drain off and keeping the tomb dry. The grundarium and subgrundarium, a gutter made of Alberese limestone slabs which facilitated the drainage of water and served to protect the tambour from erosion, can be seen at the junction between the tambour and the tumulus. The tomb is covered by a pseudo-dome formed by slabs of Alberese limestone arranged in concentric circles, which progressively narrow until they close the chamber at the top. This pseudo-dome is covered by a mound of earth, which is surrounded at the base by a containment ring of limestone blocks. Next to the door, the slab that originally closed the entrance, which had to be moved for each new burial, is still visible. When the door is open, after walking along a 12-metre long corridor, you enter the burial chamber, which is located in the centre of the tomb. It is a square room with spandrels, triangular-shaped architectural elements that serve as a connection between the square base of the chamber and the circular pseudo-dome, at each of its four corners. The remains of the funeral beds, called klinai, stone slabs with feet made of shaped panchina limestone columns which were fixed into the floor of the chamber to replicate real beds, are also visible. The bodies of the deceased were neither embalmed nor mummified but simply dressed and placed on the klinai without a chest or sarcophagus. We do not know exactly how many people were buried in this chamber but there were certainly many members of the same family. After each burial, the corridor was sealed with a backfill of stones and earth to prevent desecration of the grave. Unfortunately, the tomb was looted by grave robbers who entered through the pseudo-dome, which had partially collapsed under the weight of the slag from Populonia’s iron working industry. Grave goods including an ivory horn covered with gold leaf, a gold fibula, two small pendants with gold leaf, fragments of a bronze shield, spearheads and a musical horn were found during the excavation of the tomb.
The Tomb of the Cylindrical Pyxides
The Tomb of the Cylindrical Pyxes is a Tumulus tomb which differs from the Tomb of the Chariots in that it is a forepart tomb because the dromos extends in front of the tambour. This tomb dates back to the 7th century BC and certainly belonged to a family from Populonia’s aristocracy. Given its more modest dimensions however, it probably belonged to a less powerful family than the family buried in the Tomb of the Chariots. The dromos and the chamber were paved and inside, in the four corners, you can see the spandrels, triangular slabs connecting the square chamber with the circular pseudo-dome. In the burial chamber, there are also the remains of three funeral beds made of large panchina limestone slabs. Also in this case, at the time of the tomb’s discovery, the pseudo-dome had collapsed under the weight of slag, however, inside the chamber, the initial part of the roof is still clearly visible, with the Alberese limestone slabs arranged in a projecting way in order to close off the tomb cover. The tomb’s grave goods included a golden spiral for hair, necklace pearls made of amber and glass paste, fibulae, spearheads, dagger blades, Bucchero vases, and two cylindrical pyxes with lids, which gave their the name to the tomb. An example of Corinthian pottery, which was imported and intended for the aristocratic classes, pyxes are small containers used for storing jewellery, tweezers and make-up and were commonly associated with female burials. Etruscan women, unlike other ancient civilizations, were not only guardians of the home, but actively participated in public life. They had a proper name, were educated, could participate in convivial banquets or attend sports events and shows, and therefore enjoyed greater consideration and freedom than Greek women.
The Tomb of the Attic Cups
The Tomb of the Attic Cups is an Aedicule tomb (from the Latin aedicule, meaning small temple), which dates back to the mid-6th century BC, and was used until the mid-5th century BC. Aedicule tombs are monumental tombs that replaced Tumulus tombs with cylindrical tambours in the late-6th century BC, and probably represented the shape of contemporary sacred buildings. This tomb has a rectangular plan and was built with panchina limestone blocks, which are no longer completely intact, and the chamber is paved with a central aisle and three niches, two lateral and one at the end. Unfortunately, the tomb was disturbed in ancient times by numerous burials and then destroyed by the weight of slag piled on top (however, in the lower part of the Necropolis called the Casone, you can see a perfectly preserved Aedicule tomb). The Tomb is named after the two Attic cups decorated with red figures, kylikes, one with a flautist and the other with that of a female figure with a basket, which were found inside the tomb during its excavation. An object that was used for banquets, the kylix is a ceramic wine cup which was first used in ancient Greece in the 6th century BC, and imported for the ruling classes of Populonia. For the Etruscans, however, banquets went beyond the concept of mere nourishment. Being linked to religion and the cult of the dead, they were an opportunity to show off the wealth of the deceased and celebrate the beginning of a new life in the afterlife. In the painted tombs of Tarquinia, for example, banquet scenes show the husband and wife lying on their beds eating and drinking wine, while the servants, musicians and dancers entertain the guests in honour of the deceased.
The Tomb of the Balsamarium with a Warrior Head
This is a small Tumulus tomb with cylindrical tambour dating back to the mid-7th century BC. Given the small size of the tambour, circular plan and absence of an access dromos, this tomb constitutes an intermediate style of Tumulus tomb between those with a tambour and those without. Probably damaged by modern machinery used for the recovery of slag, only the central section of the chamber is still visible, and unfortunately nothing is left of the roof. The grave goods found during the excavations of the tomb include: a ring of gold thread, some spear heads, and an ointment bottle in the shape of a warrior's helmet of oriental Greek production, which was stolen from the Gasparri collection of Populonia in 1971.
The Tomb of Aryballos Piriforme
Another example of a Tumulus tomb with a cylindrical tambour dating from the mid-7th century BC, the Tomb of Aryballos Piriforme is very similar in structure to the Tomb of the Chariots. It has a path paved of Alberese limestone slabs which slopes slightly away from the tomb to facilitate the drainage of rainwater. The burial chamber is square and you can still see the feet of the shaped funeral beds on which the deposition of the deceased took place. During the period when Tumulus tombs were used for burials, inhumation was more common than cremation, however there are examples of both funerary rites in some tombs. Unfortunately, when the tomb was found, it had been looted and its pseudo-dome had collapsed. The name of this tomb derives from the Greek word Aryballos, a small vessel used for storing perfumes, which was found during excavations and is currently housed in the Archaeological Museum of the Populonia Territory in Piombino. This Aryballos is an example of Etruscan-Corinthian pottery, imitation Greek pottery which was produced in Etruria. When the necropolis had been covered by slag, new burials took place around the tomb. Humble sepulchres were dug directly into the almost completely buried Tumulus tomb, one of which can be seen at the back of the mound.
The Tomb of the Sieves
The Tomb of the Sieves is a pseudo-domed tomb without a tambour, with the Tumulus tomb being built on the same level as the burial chamber. It dates back to the end of the 7th century BC and was used until the end of the 4th century BC. Discovered still intact in 1960, this small tomb is unique in that it is the only tomb that did not collapse under the weight of slag and, thus, the only tomb in the necropolis that was not looted. Outside the tomb, the slab which closed the chamber and the small dromos without a roof are still visible. The square chamber has two side niches delimited by worked Alberese limestone slabs and a central aisle. Three skeletons were found in the chamber, two in the left niche and one in the right. Because the tomb had not been plundered, the burial goods were also intact, most of which were found in the central chamber. An Etrusco-Corinthian vessel used for holding perfumes (aryballos), a spindle indicating a female burial, two iron skewers used to cook meat, numerous Etruscan and Corinthian vessels, a black painted Attic cup and two bronze sieves were found, the latter giving their name to the grave. Etruscan wine was very viscous so it was mixed with water and infused with fruit, honey and spices in a large two-handled container called a krater, and therefore needed to be filtered using sieves. Wine played a central role in Etruscan life, and it was drunk at rituals including religious celebrations, especially funerals. One of the most important divinities in the Etruscan religion was Fufluns, the god of wine, happiness, health and growth, the Dionysus of the Greeks you could say. In fact, religious ceremonies in honour of Fufluns always involved a vast consumption of wine. Pliny the Elder recounts that a statue of Jupiter carved in vine wood was kept in Populonia, the ancient name of the city Pupluna perhaps even deriving from Fufluns.
Sarcophagi
In this part of the necropolis, called Casone, there are numerous chest tombs dating back to the mid-6th century BC which were used until the late-3rd century BC. Made of panchina limestone slabs which form a sort of sarcophagus, chest tombs were probably designed and built for middle class individuals, while more humble people would have been buried in simple pits. In some cases, the sarcophagus was made from large blocks which were hollowed out inside, and some of their lids look like sloping roofs. The chest tombs you can see here today are in exactly the same position they were in in ancient times. They were not covered or hidden, and none have ever been found inside any of the Tumulus tombs in Populonia, so an Etruscan walking around the necropolis would have seen the chest tombs exactly as we do today. The tombs of the small Casone necropolis are aligned and, in this area, the spatial organization of the necropolis can still be appreciated. In particular, one perceives the presence of two roads, which converge towards the elegant Aedicule tomb of the bronze offeror, next to which the chest tombs were built. One of these sarcophagi stands out from the others because it was the only one built using a different type of stone called nenfro, a much darker volcanic rock from Vulci, a rich Etruscan city in northern Lazio. Perhaps the person buried in that chest was originally from Vulci and moved to Populonia? We do not know its origin, but the lid of this tomb still has traces of the lead seal that was used to secure the lid to the chest.
The Tomb of the Bronze Offeror
Discovered in 1957 during the waste recovery works when it was buried under about 7 meters of slag, the Tomb of the Bronze Offeror is the only perfectly preserved Aedicule tomb. Aedicule tombs first made an appearance in Populonia around 560-550 BC and, like the older Tumulus tombs, resembled real funeral temples, and were commissioned and owned by families from the aristocratic classes. The construction of this Aedicule tomb dates back to the late-6th century BC, and it was used until the mid-5th century BC. The entire structure is visible: the base is made up of a row of panchina limestone blocks, above which the walls were built with blocks of dry stone. To consolidate the structure, wooden poles were inserted inside the blocks, as you can see in the bases of some Aedicule tombs which have cylindrical housings inside the masonry. The entrance to the tomb is rectangular, the roof is sloping, and a double layer of panchina limestone slabs is visible: four larger slabs make up the ceiling while smaller slabs provide the external shape of the roof. Once the layer of slag which had buried the tomb had been removed, archaeological excavations began. Numerous fragments of the stone sculptures that had originally decorated the roof of the tomb were found scattered nearby, including fragments of acroteria and fantastic animals. The slabs of funeral beds and a small urn were found in the square chamber, however the skeletons of the deceased had probably been transferred to the Casone tombs, which are located nearby, by ancient desecrators. The grave goods included some gold fibulae, an amber pendant with a ram's head, an engraved carnelian and a bronze male statuette, which gave its name to the tomb. When the tomb was discovered, archaeologists thought the bronze statuette depicted a man holding a plate and making an offering to a deity, hence the name bronze offeror. However, because he is naked and is holding a disc, it is now thought that he represents an athlete, probably a discus thrower, and would have adorned a candelabrum. The name bronze offeror has stuck, though! The grave goods from this tomb are housed and on display in the Archaeological Museum of the Populonia Territory in Piombino.
The Tomb of the Funeral Beds
The Tomb of the Funeral Beds was the first tomb in the Necropolis of San Cerbone to be discovered during the first excavation campaign in 1897 by Isidoro Falchi, the archaeologist who discovered Vetulonia and who carried out research in Populonia into the Necropolis of San Cerbone. Unfortunately, at first, due to bitter conflicts with Count Curzio Desideri, the owner of the land at the time, the dig could not go ahead. Later, when excavations resumed, the shaped feet of the funeral beds on which the bodies of the deceased rested were discovered, giving the tomb its name. The Tomb of the Funeral Beds is a Tumulus tomb with a cylindrical tumulus built in the 7th century BC and used until the mid-6th century BC. It was seriously damaged by the weight of the iron slag and has no cover. The burial chamber has a square plan with a central aisle and contains funeral beds of different sizes. Along the dromos, there are two side cells which were closed by large panchina limestone slabs, and where some of the grave goods were probably placed. Unfortunately, however, apart from the discovery of a gold filigree box earring, no grave goods were found because the tomb was completely looted. Outside the tomb, four chest tombs dating from the 6th-5th century BC are still visible and, nearby, a refined small bronze depicting the Greek hero Ajax committing suicide, which can be dated to between 500 and 480 BC, was found.